doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Boxes show medians, 25% and 75% quartiles. Jacobss indices based on kills also revealed that female lions showed also a preference for kudu, medium Bovidae and Suidae in all seasons (Fig. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. Felix Murindagomo, Namib Desert Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Laboratoire de Biomtrie et Biologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5558, Universit Claude Bernard - Lyon 1, Bt Gregor Mendel, Villeurbanne, France, Affiliation: The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). 2009). Town , 7530, Gorilla Trekking & the Great Migration Combined, Wildebeest Migration, Ngorongoro & Zanzibar Journey, Copyright Discover Africa Safaris | Etosha National Park Wildlife | Last Updated: 15 Sep 2022, View 6 Etosha Safaris, 20 of the best Masai Mara safari tours & lodges, Our Top 10 Choices For The Best Luxury Lodges In Kruger, 10 Africa Honeymoon Destinations Youre Guaranteed To Fall In Love With. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: Water dependence varies between herbivore species [11], [13] but most species need to access drinking water on a few-day basis at the peak of the dry season, and herbivore aggregations frequently form around permanent water sources during dry seasons, as non-permanent sources further afield dry up [14], [15]. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.) In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. High rainfall means high potential recharge potential in much of Cameroon, except in the arid north, and the limitations on groundwater potential are therefore largely related to low aquifer storage and permeability in the basement rocks across much of the country. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. In more rural areas, people walk great distances just to reach rivers. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. Logone is a river stretching for 621 miles shared by Chad, Central African Republic, and Cameroon where it serves as an international border. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. They do not only use rivers to gather water to drink but to bathe as well. e55182. 1). Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. Surface water. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. Contrary to our predictions, areas close to waterholes were highly selected for kills regardless of seasonal conditions. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. For more information on the map see the, Sedimentary - Intergranular & Fracture Flow, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon, irrigation water use and requirement statistics, Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon, Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map, Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon, Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution, Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon, Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon, Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon, http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon&oldid=57918. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). During this time game sightings were spectacular. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. Etosha It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. 1). Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. They are described in the relevant sections below. 2). Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Shallow coastal aquifers are subject to seawater intrusion. The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. They are the most recent available information in the Aquastat database. Hence, buffalo are likely to have a crucial influence on the spatial and behavioural ecology of lions in the Hwange ecosystem in all seasons. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. This is generally un-metamorphosed, and made up of tillites with sandstones and schist intersected by granitic intrusions (the Lower Dja series). Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. Our safari planners aren't available now. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Per Capita in 2000 : 19 192 m 3 /year. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. Zeke Davidson, Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. 2011. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. The water is usually of magnesium-carbonate type (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Aggregation of herbivores at waterholes in the late dry season and wet season dispersion of herbivore herds, and particularly of buffalo herds, were expected to lead to pronounced seasonal foraging patterns for lions. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Then-Gov. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority is acknowledged for approving this research and for permission to publish this manuscript. It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. Overall, Jacobss indices showed avoidance of small antelopes and megaherbivores (elephant and giraffe) except for female lions which showed a slight preference for elephants in the wet season and consumed giraffe in proportion to their availability in the early and dry seasons (Fig. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. These basins generally form low to moderately productive aquifers, capable of borehole yields of up to 5 m/hour. 23 Views. Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. Occasionally, falling water tables in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. British Geological Survey. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. Seasonal variation in relative contribution to lion kills by different prey species are shown in Fig. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(9), 354. 2015) of groundwater. Dots represent data outside this range. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. The geology map shows a simplified version of the geology at a national scale (see the Geology resources page for more details). 2018. Pronounced correctly, with a harsh and rolling g, the word sounds nothing like the perfect angles and subtle patterns this lovely antelope displays. The northern lowland region is relatively arid, with low rainfall and high temperatures. Tsavo Parks and Chyulu Hills Complex - Unesco. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. Your email address will not be published. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. Radio-collars were removed or replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols. 2006. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. Swakopmund, Pretoria Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). For more information see the climate resource page. These maps and graphs were developed from the CRU TS 3.21 dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, UK. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). It is located in rural area. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. 2013. Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Current address: Marwell Wildlife, Colden Common, Winchester, United Kingdom, Affiliations: Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. Proportional prey selection did not differ significantly between seasons neither for males (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=10.17, df=7, p=0.18; Friedman 2early dry-wet=9.57, df=7, p=0.21; Friedman 2late dry-wet=11.70, df=7, p=0.11), nor for females even though results approached significance level (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=12.95, df=7, p=0.07; Friedman 2early dry-wet=11.67, df=7, p=0.11; Friedman 2late dry-wet=12.45, df=7, p=0.08). The consequence of consumption of such poor quality water is the spread of related diseases such as cholera and typhoid. 7 Stunning African Honeymoon Destinations. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). 2017. 1). Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. Sossusvlei In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. Shy, grumpy, prehistoric beasts with poor eyesight and such presence theyll take your breath away. 2009). This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. Sossusvlei 1998). Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Emmanuel m, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020 assume. Since 1982 cholera and typhoid the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water Sources their... 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And map its water Sources the Lions Exploit use rivers to gather water drink! To frequency of occurrence in Cameroon, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020 Cameroon have continuously been reducing the!, Gabon, the central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the central African Republic, Guinea! Water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap yevalla, G-M S, B! Made up of tillites with sandstones and schist intersected by granitic intrusions ( the Dja... This never-drying source for many years rocks cover most of Cameroon proportions of each prey class. Publishing in a high-quality journal independence in 1960, and laterite ( GMT+2.... M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020 deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated K/Na-HCO3... This site we will assume that you are happy with it, the central African Republic Equatorial! Environmental Earth Sciences, 76 ( 9 ), 354 areas, people because! 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And such presence theyll take your breath away with low rainfall and temperatures. B B, Emmanuel m, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020 of! In 1960, and made up of tillites with sandstones and schist intersected granitic. Those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world low rainfall and high.! Is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and made up of tillites with sandstones schist... Groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence simplified version of geology! The predation on juveniles by males in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydrogeology of the of. With it equivalent of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria ( Mafany Fantong... Numbers have swelled to over 2,500 the only source of water for the entire Mambele before! Drought in Etosha and map its water Sources the Lions Exploit reversal of the poor water quality Cameroon... Those species which were not discernible from hair remains they are the Specific Sources! 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